Mt. Etna

v Mt. Etna, also known as Mongibello in Italian, is the most active volcano in Europe.

v It is also the largest volcano in Europe being nearly three times as large as Mt. Vesuvius.

v The base of Mt. Etna is 36 miles by 24 miles.

v Mt. Etna stands at about 3,326m (10,910 ft.) though this varies with summit eruptions.

v Etna has the longest record of historic eruptions.

v The last eruption occurred in November 2007.

v The first recorded eruption was in 1500 B.C.

v Etna has erupted at least 190 times since then.

v The most dramatic eruption was in 1669. Earthquakes began on February 25 and the eruption began March 11 and stopped on July 15.

v Fatalities have only occurred in 7 eruptions.

v On December 14, 1991 Mt. Etna began to erupt and the eruption continued until March 30, 1993. It was the largest eruption at Mt. Etna in the last 300 years.

v Mt. Etna is located in Sicily, Italy.

Pompeii Destruction

"You could hear women lamenting, children crying, men shouting. There were some so afraid of death that they prayed for death. Many raised their hands to the gods, and even more believed that there were no gods any longer and that this was one unending night for the world." —Pliny the Younger, circa A.D. 97 to 109

Ø Inhabited by about 20,000 people in 79 A.D., Pompeii, on the bay of Naples, survived its share of wars and natural disasters.

Ø On August 24 of 79 A.D. Pompeii was one of many cities that were destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius.

Ø The exact date of the eruption has caused some debate among scholars. It is believed that the eruption could have been on August 24, October 30, November 1, or November 23. Some of the bodies found at Pompeii had heavy clothing on which appear inappropriate for a summer month such as August. However, deciduous trees were found at Herculaneum. These trees would have been bare if it was an autumn month which makes some believe that the eruption may have happened later that August 29.

Ø The streets of Pompeii were very narrow and were quickly filled with ash and pumice as the eruption progressed.

Ø Bits of pumice were found 74 miles away.

Ø The pillar of smoke and ash was seen all the way from Rome.

Ø Volcanic activity most likely continued for several days after Pompeii was destroyed.

Ø Volcanologists now know today that there was no lava flowing during the eruption.

Ø It is estimated that the surges could have reached temperatures of 100-400°C (212-750°F). These surges could have also carried toxic gases.

Ø Since 79 A.D. Vesuvius has erupted thirty times before becoming dormant again.

Ø The main source of historical information came from Pliny the elder who watched the eruption from his quarters in Misenum. His desire to study the eruption led to his death. Years later his nephew, Pliny the younger, told his uncle’s story to the historian Tacitus.

Ø Pompeii lay buried for nearly 1,700 years. It wasn't until 1748 that archaeologists began slowly uncovering the ancient city.

Ø Pompeii is now one of the most popular tourists with having nearly 2.5 million tourists a year to visit.

For further readings please see:

Berry, Joanne. The Complete Pompeii. New York, New York: Thames

and Hudson Inc., 2007.

Deem, James M. Bodies From the Ash. Boston: Houghton Mifflin

Company, 2005.

Pliny the Elder

By Brian Freeman

Pliny the Elder was a Roman naturalist. He was a fellow soldier and friend of Vespasian. He dedicated his great work and writings to Titus. According to the Columbian Encyclopedia his only surviving work is an encyclopedia of natural science. [1] The Funk and Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia states that Pliny the Elder wrote many scientific works on top of writing many historical works during his lifetime including De Laculatione Equestri, Studiosus, Dubius Sermo, and many others.[2] Pliny the Elder’s best known work is his great encyclopedia the Historia Naturalis which is the only one of his works that has been preserved.[3] E.W. Gudger wrote that Pliny the Elder was one of the most industrious students and one of the most educated men during the time that he lived.[4]

Gaius Plinius Secundus also known as Pliny the Elder was born in A.D. 23. He was born in the town of Como in northern Italy. Little is known about his early life. Jerry Dennis wrote in an article in the Smithsonian that it is likely that his parents were in a high social standing and quite possibly comfortably wealthy.[5] He was first educated in Como, Italy and later in Rome, Italy. According to Jerry Dennis, Pliny the Elder was educated in many different areas such as science, literature, philosophy, art, oratory, and theatre.[6] Dennis also states that Pliny the Elder entered the military at the age of twenty-three and served as an officer in Germany for seven to eight years.[7] He eventually rose in rank to commander of auxiliary cavalry regiment. Dennis goes on to say that after Pliny the Elder’s service in the military he returned to Rome, Italy to study law and pursue a career in writing.[8]

Pliny the Elder’s career is mostly traced back to the letters that his nephew, Pliny the Younger, wrote. Pliny the Younger portrays his uncle as “a man of intense curiosity and ambition, to tireless in his research and so dedicated to a life of letters that he slept only a few hours each day, devoted virtually every waking moment to his work and in the 56 years that he lived, tallied the equivalent of several lifetimes’ worth of accomplishments”.[9] According to Dennis, many wondered how a man like Pliny the Elder was able to compose so many books.[10] Pliny characteristically worked twenty hours out of every twenty-four hour day. John M. Riddle states in The American Journal of Philology that “Pliny was not a renaissance man but a practical, ‘encyclopedic man’ and Roman to the core”.[11]

Pliny the Elder’s best know work is his encyclopedia the Historia Naturalis. This encyclopedia consists of thirty-seven books on nature and art. In his encyclopedia he has 20,000 important facts that were for the Roman Emperor Titus.[12] The Funk and Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia says that first ten books were published in A.D. 77 and the rest were published after Pliny the Elder died.[13] The encyclopedia is concerned with many different areas such as astronomy, anthropology, zoology, botany, medicine and many others. The encyclopedia consists of many medical facts. According to D.E. Eicholz in The Classical Review, Pliny the Elder paid close attention to assure that he used proper medical language.[14] According to Charles G. Nauert, Jr. “Pliny’s Natural History became an influential book of natural science from the moment of its publication. There is evidence for at least some knowledge of it during every medieval century”.[15] Nauert also says that Pliny the Elder’s encyclopedia was never lost but did undergo stages of re-evaluation during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.[16] According to John M. Riddle in an untitled article, Pliny the Elder is lacking in some areas in his encyclopedia.[17] These areas include geography, diet, magic, rationality, and art.[18] According to E.H Gudger, Pliny the Elder’s encyclopedia was not printed until 1469.[19]

Much of Pliny the Elder’s work has been studied by reading the letters of his nephew, Pliny the Younger. Most of what is known about Pliny the Elder has been found through these letters that were wrote by Pliny the Younger. John Henderson discusses Pliny the Younger’s letters in an article called Knowing Someone Through Their Books: Pliny on Uncle Pliny.[20] John Henderson also discusses how these books are the main source of information into Pliny the Elder’s life.[21] Henderson says, “Pliny will for us fade eerily and unsatisfactorily away into oblivion, when his letters give out, and we have no story of his end”.[22] Henderson is meaning that if it were not for these letters then there would be no information about Pliny the Elder’s life or how it tragically ended.[23]

Many of Pliny the Elder’s writings have been lost. One of the most interesting writings that Pliny the Elder might have written was a journal entry that describes the eruption of Mount Vesuvius on August 24, 79. Dennis Jerry writes that Pliny the Younger wrote a letter to Tacitus describing in detail how Pliny the Elder spent his last moments before Mount Vesuvius erupted.[24] According to Dennis Jerry, Pliny the Elder was working as though it was a normal day in a villa on the shore of the Bay of Naples. This is where he had been place in command of a navy fleet.[25] Dennis goes on to say that according to Pliny the Younger’s letter, Pliny the Elder climbed to the top of a hill to view the cloud that was appearing over Mount Vesuvius.[26] Pliny wanted to go for a closer look and boarded a boat and went toward the city of Stabiae which was near the base of the volcano.[27] Pliny the Elder and his crew decided to leave Stabiae as the danger started worsening, but the waves prevented them from launching their boats so they had to wait for the wind to end.[28] Pliny the Elder died from sulfurous gases that suddenly swept down on to the beach which probably obstructed his breathing and blocked his windpipe.[29]

Pliny the Elder was a very influential writer. John M. Riddle wrote in The American Historical Review that classicists ignored Pliny the Elder as a writer.[30] He also says that these classicists would judge Pliny the Elder and view him as “a mere credulous compiler”.[31] Riddle also discussed that Renaissance scholars give Pliny the Elder credit for contributing scientific thought to writing.[32] Many scholars will agree with Riddle when he says that Pliny the Elder’s Historia Naturalis is an, “extremely important work for what it reveals about ancient learning as well as its cultural legacy for posterity”.[33] Pliny the Elder was also a very inspiring historian. He inspired other historian such as Tacitus. Ernst Breisach agrees and states that Tacitus’s approach in politics comes from Pliny the Elder.[34]

Pliny the Elder’s works also had a big influence on natural history. E.W. Gudger wrote that “thus for the fourteen hundred years between Pliny’s death and the appearance of his book in print, no other work contributed so much to keep natural history alive; and as we shall see later, for the three hundred years following the appearance of the first printed edition in 1469, it was still the great authority, read, studied, and quoted by all students of natural history”.[35] Gudger goes on to say that this encyclopedia was the foundation for all other books that would be written about natural history.[36]

Pliny the Elder lived a very interesting life and wrote many amazing works. Pliny the Elder was very dedicated to any project he worked on and would work for numerous hours without sleeping. Although he is most famous for his encyclopedia on natural history called Historia Naturalis, he had many other great works that were not preserved. If it was not for this encyclopedia then little would be known about the lifestyles of ancient Romans. This encyclopedia still remains a valuable source of information. Pliny the Elder was a very influential historian who continues to influence historians to this day.

---

[1] Columbia Encyclopedia, “pliny the elder.”

[2] Funk and Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, “pliny the elder.”

[3] Ibid 1

[4] E.W. Gudger, “Pliny’s Historia naturalis. The Most Popular Natural History Ever Published,” Isis, no. 3 (1924), in JSTOR, William Carey University; accessed October 23, 2008.

[5] Jerry Dennis, “Pliny’s world: All the facts—and then some,” Smithsonian 26 no. 8, in Academic Search Premier, William Carey University; accessed October 16, 2008.

[6] Ibid 1

[7] Ibid 1

[8] Jerry Dennis, “Pliny’s world: All the facts—and then some,” Smithsonian 26 no. 8, in Academic Search Premier, William Carey University; accessed October 16, 2008.

[9] Ibid 1

[10] Ibid 1

[11] John M. Riddle, “Untitled,” The American Journal of Philogy 116, no. 4 (Winter 1995), in JSTOR, William Carey University; accessed October 16, 2008.

[12] Funk and Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, “pliny the elder.”

[13] Ibid

[14] D.E. Eichholz, “Review: The Style of the Elder Pliny,” The Classical Review 8, no. 1 (March 1958), in JSTOR, William Carey University; accessed October 15, 2008.

[15] Charles G. Jr. Nauert, “Humanists, Scientists and Pliny: Changing Approaches to a Classical Author,” American Historical Review 84, no. 1 (1979), in JSTOR, William Carey University; accessed October 23, 2008.

[16] Ibid 3

[17] John M. Riddle, “Review: (untitled),” The American Historical Review 93, no. 2 (April 1988), in JSTOR, William Carey University; accessed October 16, 2008.

[18] Ibid 398

[19] E.W. Gudger, “Pliny’s Historia naturalis. The Most Popular Natural History Ever Published,” Isis, no. 3 (1924), in JSTOR, William Carey University; accessed October 23, 2008.

[20] John Henderson, “Knowing Someone through Their Books: Pliny on Uncle Pliny (Epistles3.5),” Classical Philology 97, no. 3 (July 2002), in Academic Search Premier, William Carey University; accessed October 15, 2008.

[21] Ibid 2

[22] John Henderson, “Knowing Someone through Their Books: Pliny on Uncle Pliny (Epistles3.5),” Classical Philology 97, no. 3 (July 2002), in Academic Search Premier, William Carey University; accessed October 15, 2008.

[23] Ibid 2

[24] Jerry Dennis, “Pliny’s world: All the facts—and then some,” Smithsonian 26 no. 8, in Academic Search Premier, William Carey University; accessed October 16, 2008.

[25] Ibid 1

[26] Ibid 1

[27] Ibid 1

[28] Ibid 1

[29] Ibid 1

[30] John M. Riddle, “Review: (untitled),” The American Historical Review 93, no. 2 (April 1988), in JSTOR, William Carey University; accessed October 16, 2008.

[31] Ibid 398

[32] Ibid 398

[33] Ibid 398

[34] Ernst Breisach, Historiography: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1994), 68.

[35] E.W. Gudger, “Pliny’s Historia naturalis. The Most Popular Natural History Ever Published,” Isis, no. 3 (1924), in JSTOR, William Carey University; accessed October 23, 2008.

[36] Ibid 272

The Basilica of St. Peter

By Brian Freeman

TV ES PETRVS ET SVPER HANC PETRAM AEDIFICABO ECCLESIAM MEAM. TIBI DABO CLAVES REGNI CAELORVM

you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church. ... I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven... Matthew 16:18-19

An inscription found along the inside base of the dome.

¨ Located 41°54′8″N 12″E it is the most prominent building inside the Vatican City  / 41.90222, 12.45333and one of the holiest sites of Christendom.

¨ The main nave is 46 m (138ft) in height and the domes height is 119m (357ft).

¨ The second largest church building in Christianity, it covers an area 5.7 acres and has a capacity of over 60,000 people.

¨ Known as the burial site of Peter, who was one of the twelve disciples of Jesus, and in the Roman Catholic tradition, also the first Bishop of Antioch.

¨ The Basilica is more than just the tomb of Peter. Many great popes have been buried in Grotto Graveyard underneath the Basilica including: John Paul II (1978-2005),John Paul I (1978-33 days),Paul VI (1963-78),Paul XII (1939-58),Pius XI (1922-39),and Bendict XV (1914-22)

¨ Construction on the current building began under Pope Julius II in 1506 and was completed in 1615 under Pope Paul V.

¨ Designed by the most famous architects and geniuses of the Renaissance and Baroque time.

¨ Donato Bramante was first chief architect. Michelangelo, who served as main architect for a while, designed the dome.

¨ The interior of St. Peter's is filled with many masterpieces of Renaissance and Baroque art, among the most famous of which are Michelangelo's Pietà, the Baldachin by Bernini over the main altar, the statue of St. Longinus in the crossing, and the tomb of Urban VIII.

“The first burst of the interior, in all its expansive majesty and glory: and, most of all, the looking up into the Dome; is sensation never to be forgotten.” Charles Dickens, 1846

Plan of St Peter’s Basilica

A Statue of Charlemagne by A. Comacchini (1725)	35 Monument to Urban VIII
B Statue of Constantine by Bernini (1670)	36 Chair of St. Peter by Bernini
	37 Monument to Paul III (Della Porta)
1 Facade by Maderno	38 Monument to Alexander VIII
2 Mosaic "of the Navicella" by Giotto	39 Altar of the paralytic
3 Portico by Maderno	40 St. Leo's Altar
4 Bronze doors by Filarete with bas-relief above	41 Altar dedicated to Our Lady of the Column
by Bernini	42 Monument to Alexander VII (Bernini)
5 Holy Door	43 Altar dedicated to SS. Peter and Paul
6 Spiral column from the Temple of Jerusalem (see note at bottom)	44 St. Thomas' Altar
7 Michelangelo's Pieta (1500)	45 St. Joseph's Altar
8 Old sarcophagus	46 St. Martial's Altar
9 Chapel of the Crucifix	47 Monument to Pius V (Tenerani) and entrance to
10 Statue of Leo XII	the Vestry and the Treasury
11 Monument to Queen Christina of Sweden	48 Altar dedicated to SS. Peter and Andrew
12 Chapel of St. Sebastian and the monuments	49 St. Gregory's Altar (tomb underneath)
to Pius XI and Pius XII	50 Monument to Pius VII (Thorwaldsen)
13 Monument to Innocent XII	51 Altar of the Transfiguration
14 Tomb of Countess Matilde	52 Monument to Leo XI
15 Chapel of the Most Holy Sacrament	53 Tomb of B. Innocent XI
16 Chapel of the Most Holy Sacrament Altar	54 Chapel of the Choir
17 Doorway leading to the Scala Regia	55 Choir stalls
18 Doorway leading to the organs	56 Monument to St. Pius X
19 Monument to Gregory XIII	57 Monument to Innocent VIII
20 Tomb of Gregory XIV	58 Chapel of the Presentation and Urn of Pius X
21 St. Jerome's Altar	and the monuments to Benedict XV (Canonica)
22 Monument to Gregory XVI	and to John XXIII (Greco)
23 Altar dedicated to Our Lady of Succour	59 Monument to Maria Clementina Sobieski and
24 St. Basil's Altar	entrance to the Dome
25 Monument to Benedict XIV	60 Tomb of the Stuarts
26 St. Wenceslas' Altar	61 Baptismal Font
27 Altar dedicated to SS. Processus and Martinian	62 Holy water stoup
28 St. Erasmus' Altar	63 Statue of St. Peter
29 Altar of the Navicella	64 Statue of St. Veronica (Mochi)
30 Monument to Clement XIII (Canova c 1790)	65 Statue of St. Helena (Bolgi)
31 St. Michael's Altar	66 Statue of St. Longinus (Bernini)
32 St. Petronilla's Altar	67 Status of St. Andrew (Duquesnoy); entrance to Vatican Grottoes
33 St. Peter's Altar	68 The Confession/St. Peter's Tomb (Maderno)
34 Monument to Clement X	69 Baldacchino by Bernini

For Futher Reading:

Papafava, Francesco. The Vatican. Italy: KINA, 1996.

“Peter in Rome.” Feb 2004.http://www.basarchive.org/

bswbSearch.asp?PubID=BSBR&

Volume=20&Issue=1&ArticleID=5&UserID=2322&.

Saint Peter's Basilica." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 Dec. 2007 .